Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content (5534) Test Alignment

Why Test Alignment Matters for Your Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content Study Guide

Certification test standards are broad, but the exam questions are very specific. Our team of curriculum experts uses the 240 Study Guide Creation Process to ensure the most aligned, specific content for your Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content (5534) test — so you are not wasting time on broad subject review that may not show up on exam day.

Why 240 is the best choice for the Praxis 5534 study guide

Built around the official exam framework
Organized by the competencies actually used on the exam
Shows exactly what is covered and where depth is partial
Includes aligned questions, flashcards, study materials, and videos
Helps candidates study what is actually tested instead of broad generic content

Transparent coverage is a strength. We show where the guide is strong, where depth is partial, and where a gap has been identified so you can make an informed study decision.

How to Read This Alignment Review

5Domains

64Competencies reviewed

99%Test-aligned

63Covered

1Partially covered

0Gaps

CoveredCompetency is comprehensively supported by the guide.
Partially coveredCore content is covered, but some depth gaps remain.
Coverage gap identifiedA content gap has been identified.

This study guide is based on the current official exam framework. We review and update alignment whenever the official framework changes so candidates are always studying current, accurate material.

Child Development and Learning (Domain I)Covered

SMR I.A · Developmental Knowledge130 questions · 10 materials · 78 cards · 4 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Understands typical developmental progression and can identify atypical development across physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and linguistic domains, including bilingual/multilingual development.	P.Emotional Development (EC); P.Physical Development (EC); P.Social Development (EC); P.Linguistic Development (EC); P.Cognitive Development V2	Covered	64	5	40	3	Covered by 5 topics (64 questions, 5 materials, 40 cards, 3 videos).
2. Understands how language, culture, and family background influence the learning of children with and without exceptionalities.	P.Family Systems Theory	Covered	18	1	1	0	Covered by 1 topic (18 questions, 1 materials, 1 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows the various theories and research that inform the field’s understanding of young children’s development and learning.	P.Constructivism V2; P.Learning Theories; P.Social and Emotional Development Theories; P.Other Learning Frameworks	Covered	48	4	38	1	Covered by 4 topics (48 questions, 4 materials, 38 cards, 1 videos).

SMR I.B · Factors that Influence Development and Learning96 questions · 4 materials · 13 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Notes
1. Understands the diversity of families (structure, environment, culture) and the impact they have on children’s lives and learning.	P.Family Roles and Structures	Covered	14	1	1	Covered by 1 topic (14 questions, 1 materials, 1 cards, 0 videos).
2. Understands how children’s physical characteristics, health, gender, temperament, self-concept, interests, and abilities affect their learning.	P.Teaching Diverse Students	Covered	42	1	6	Covered by 1 topic (42 questions, 1 materials, 6 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows biological and environmental factors that influence children’s early development and learning.	P.Teaching Diverse Students; P.Environmental and Biological Factors	Covered	63	2	12	Covered by 2 topics (63 questions, 2 materials, 12 cards, 0 videos).
4. Understands the impact of protective factors, trauma, stress, and adversity on children’s development and learning.	P.Stress and Emotional Trauma	Covered	19	1	0	Covered by 1 topic (19 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos).

SMR I.C · Support Diverse Learners179 questions · 5 materials · 18 cards · 2 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Knows that some children will need individualized support for identified developmental delays, disabilities, and intellectual giftedness.	P.Adaptations for Diversity - Disabilities; P.Adaptations for Diversity - ELL; P.Adaptations for Diversity - Gifted and Talented	Covered	107	3	11	0	Covered by 3 topics (107 questions, 3 materials, 11 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows the critical role of developmentally appropriate play in a child’s life and how it influences the developmental and learning process.	P.Child Development and Play	Covered	26	1	6	1	Covered by 1 topic (26 questions, 1 materials, 6 cards, 1 videos).
3. Knows strategies to create psychologically healthy, safe, secure, respectful, supportive, and challenging learning communities, including positive guidance strategies for individual children and groups.	P.Positive Class Community	Covered	46	1	1	1	Covered by 1 topic (46 questions, 1 materials, 1 cards, 1 videos).

Child Observation, Documentation, and Assessment (Domain II)Covered

SMR II.A · Effective Assessment Practices122 questions · 4 materials · 19 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Notes
1. Knows how to create, select, adapt, and use screening and assessment tools that assess children’s learning progress, strengths, and interests in ways that are developmentally appropriate (e.g., in regard to culture, linguistics, disabilities).	P.Screening and Evaluation; P.Early Childhood Assessment; P.Assessment Modifications and Accommodations	Covered	67	3	15	Covered by 3 topics (67 questions, 3 materials, 15 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows the benefits and uses of assessment to inform curriculum and instruction.	P.Using Assessment to Adjust Instruction	Covered	55	1	4	Covered by 1 topic (55 questions, 1 materials, 4 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows the role screening and evaluation play in the referral and evaluation process for identifying a child who needs additional support or services.	P.Screening and Evaluation	Covered	36	1	3	Covered by 1 topic (36 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).
4. Knows how to collect and organize children’s assessment data.	P.Early Childhood Assessment; P.Using Assessment to Adjust Instruction	Covered	74	2	7	Covered by 2 topics (74 questions, 2 materials, 7 cards, 0 videos).
5. Knows how to interpret observations, screening, and assessment results to adjust or modify instruction or curriculum (e.g., scaffolding).	P.Using Assessment to Adjust Instruction	Covered	55	1	4	Covered by 1 topic (55 questions, 1 materials, 4 cards, 0 videos).
6. Knows how to embed assessment into instruction through the connection of learning goals and teaching strategies.	P.Early Childhood Assessment	Covered	19	1	3	Covered by 1 topic (19 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).

SMR II.B · Collaborative Assessment Practices64 questions · 2 materials · 8 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Notes
1. Knows how to convey the meaning of assessment results accurately with simplified explanations for children, parents/caregivers, teachers, and colleagues from other disciplines.	P.Communicating Assessment Results	Covered	28	1	5	Covered by 1 topic (28 questions, 1 materials, 5 cards, 0 videos).
2. Understands the teacher’s role as an active participant in the screening, referral, and evaluation process.	P.Screening and Evaluation	Covered	36	1	3	Covered by 1 topic (36 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).
3. Understands the child’s family as the expert by identifying different ways families can contribute to the assessment process.	P.Screening and Evaluation	Covered	36	1	3	Covered by 1 topic (36 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).

Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Practice (Domain III)Covered

SMR III.A · Learning Environment40 questions · 2 materials · 14 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Notes
1. Knows the components of safe, effective, and flexible learning environments to stimulate a range of interests and abilities that are appropriate to the age of the child (e.g., spaces for individual and cooperative learning, learning centers, spaces that support diversity and inclusion).	P.Early Childhood Learning Environments	Covered	31	1	11	Covered by 1 topic (31 questions, 1 materials, 11 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows how to integrate multisensory materials into indoor and outdoor spaces to promote learning and development (e.g., accessibility, learning centers, aesthetics).	P.Early Childhood Learning Environments	Covered	31	1	11	Covered by 1 topic (31 questions, 1 materials, 11 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows how to establish, communicate, and model classroom schedules, routines, procedures, and rules effectively.	P.Early Childhood Learning Environments	Covered	31	1	11	Covered by 1 topic (31 questions, 1 materials, 11 cards, 0 videos).
4. Knows how to encourage children to move toward independence, make transitions, use self-regulation, understand perspective-taking, and resolve conflicts (e.g., strategies such as positive reinforcements, self-talk, charting).	P.Self-Regulation	Covered	9	1	3	Covered by 1 topic (9 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).
5. Knows theories and research that inform the development of learning environments and instructional practice.	P.Early Childhood Learning Environments	Covered	31	1	11	Covered by 1 topic (31 questions, 1 materials, 11 cards, 0 videos).

SMR III.B · Differentiated Instruction64 questions · 3 materials · 10 cards · 2 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Knows how to scope and sequence to plan lessons that highlight the standards and skills as well as promote growth in specific developmental domains and content areas.	P.Logical Sequencing	Covered	16	1	3	1	Covered by 1 topic (16 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 1 videos).
2. Knows how to apply flexible, evidence-based teaching skills and strategies that are appropriate for different ages and content areas.	P.Instructional Flexibility; P.Differentiation	Covered	48	2	7	1	Covered by 2 topics (48 questions, 2 materials, 7 cards, 1 videos).
3. Understands the importance of supporting children’s acquisition and exploration of increasingly complex knowledge and skills.	P.Logical Sequencing; P.Differentiation	Covered	43	2	5	1	Covered by 2 topics (43 questions, 2 materials, 5 cards, 1 videos).

SMR III.C · Instructional Strategies137 questions · 6 materials · 24 cards · 2 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Understands the importance of a developmentally and culturally relevant curriculum, building on the cultural and linguistic assets that each child brings.	P.Culturally Responsive Teaching	Covered	23	1	2	0	Covered by 1 topic (23 questions, 1 materials, 2 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows how to select appropriate resources and materials to fit instructional strategies and goals.	P.Selecting Instructional Materials	Covered	15	1	5	0	Covered by 1 topic (15 questions, 1 materials, 5 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows how to select materials that avoid biases and stereotypes to foster positive learning dispositions for children.	P.Selecting Instructional Materials	Covered	15	1	5	0	Covered by 1 topic (15 questions, 1 materials, 5 cards, 0 videos).
4. Knows how to modify instruction based on the strengths, needs, and interests of children up to age 6 (e.g., modifying learning goals, sequencing, teaching methods, scaffolding).	P.Differentiation	Covered	27	1	2	0	Covered by 1 topic (27 questions, 1 materials, 2 cards, 0 videos).
5. Knows how to use grouping strategies based on the learning goals and needs of the learners (e.g., whole group, small group, pairs, individual work in learning centers).	P.Using Groups	Covered	28	1	3	1	Covered by 1 topic (28 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 1 videos).
6. Knows the different types of play (e.g., solitary, parallel, cooperative, constructive) and the importance of incorporating play into the curriculum.	P.Child Development and Play	Covered	26	1	6	1	Covered by 1 topic (26 questions, 1 materials, 6 cards, 1 videos).
7. Knows how to evaluate, select, and modify activities and materials, including interactive technologies, to support children in equitable and active learning based on their learning paths, interests, strengths, and needs.	P.Selecting Instructional Materials; P.Integrating Digital Technology	Covered	33	2	11	0	Covered by 2 topics (33 questions, 2 materials, 11 cards, 0 videos).

Professionalism, Family-Teacher Partnerships, and Community Connections (Domain IV)Partially covered

SMR IV.A · Ethical Standards and Professional Guidelines103 questions · 5 materials · 24 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Notes
1. Understands the importance of upholding ethical and professional guidelines for early childhood educators, students, their families, and colleagues (e.g., uses the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) Code of Ethical Conduct, confidentiality, informed consent, mandatory reporting, records, and assessment).	P.Teacher Roles and Responsibilities	Covered	18	1	6	Covered by 1 topic (18 questions, 1 materials, 6 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows the rights of children with developmental delays or disabilities.	P.IDEA	Covered	17	1	13	Covered by 1 topic (17 questions, 1 materials, 13 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows how to locate and identify information from sources of professional research to stay current in the field and improve practice (e.g., journals, books, online resources, professional associations, professional workshops, conferences).	P.Professional Development	Covered	34	1	2	Covered by 1 topic (34 questions, 1 materials, 2 cards, 0 videos).
4. Understands the early childhood educator’s role as a professional partner and the professional responsibilities pertaining to special education laws (e.g., IFSP, IDEA, Section 504, mandatory reporting, confidentiality, FERPA).	P.Teacher Roles and Responsibilities	Covered	18	1	6	Covered by 1 topic (18 questions, 1 materials, 6 cards, 0 videos).
5. Knows how to analyze, modify, and improve instruction through self-reflective practice, colleague/supervisor feedback, and evidence from inside and outside the classroom.	P.Professional Development; P.Using Data and Self-Reflection to Improve	Covered	60	2	4	Covered by 2 topics (60 questions, 2 materials, 4 cards, 0 videos).
6. Knows the common procedures to promote the health and safety of young children (e.g., playground rules, fire drills, CPR, active shooter drills).	P.Health and Safety	Covered	8	1	1	Covered by 1 topic (8 questions, 1 materials, 1 cards, 0 videos).

SMR IV.B · Family and Community Relationships126 questions · 5 materials · 17 cards · 2 videosPartially covered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Knows how to identify needed support for children and families and is familiar with ways to connect families to high-quality resources available in the community and through the school (e.g., translation/interpretation services, early childhood special education, early intervention services).	P.Collaboration with the Community	Covered	20	1	0	0	Covered by 1 topic (20 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows a variety of collaborative strategies to partner with families in children’s development and learning.	P.Role of Parents and Guardians	Covered	14	1	0	0	Covered by 1 topic (14 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos).
3. Understands how to use family-centered practices, family systems theory, and the changing needs and priorities in families’ lives to develop trusting, respectful, affirming, and culturally responsive partnerships with all families that allow for the mutual exchange of knowledge and information.	P.Involving Parents in the School Community	Partially covered	3	1	0	0	Partial coverage by 1 topic (3 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos); limited supporting content.
4. Knows strategies for engaging in collaboration with other colleagues (e.g., speech therapists, paraprofessionals, reading specialists, special educators).	P.Collaborating with Colleagues	Covered	41	1	16	1	Covered by 1 topic (41 questions, 1 materials, 16 cards, 1 videos).
5. Knows how to select and modify a variety of communication strategies to fit different circumstances and audience preferences, including the use of technology (e.g., emails, digital portfolios, online reports, assistive technology, texting).	P.Communicating with Families	Covered	48	1	1	1	Covered by 1 topic (48 questions, 1 materials, 1 cards, 1 videos).

Knowledge, Application, and Integration of Academic Content in the Curriculum (Domain V)Covered

SMR V.A · Language and Literacy368 questions · 14 materials · 105 cards · 1 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Knows the different stages of language development and language delays for children from birth through age 8.	ELA.Process of Learning - Oral Language	Covered	6	1	10	0	Covered by 1 topic (6 questions, 1 materials, 10 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows the bilingual language development process, knows the foundational role the home language plays in academic success, and is familiar with the strategies for supporting continued home language development.	ESL.Stages of Second Language Acquisition; ESL.Characteristics of Effective Methods - Bilingual	Covered	25	2	8	1	Covered by 2 topics (25 questions, 2 materials, 8 cards, 1 videos).
3. Understands the importance of literacy skills (e.g., phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, listening comprehension, and writing) and the use of instructional strategies to support the child’s learning development.	ELA.Teaching - Phonological Awareness V2; ELA.Teaching - Phonemic Awareness; ELA.Teaching - Phonics and Decoding V2; ELA.Teaching - Increasing Vocabulary V2; ELA.Teaching - Reading Fluency V2	Covered	261	5	54	0	Covered by 5 topics (261 questions, 5 materials, 54 cards, 0 videos).
4. Knows instructional strategies to help children build receptive and expressive vocabulary and use it in reading, writing, speaking, and listening for increased comprehension.	ELA.Integration of Language Skills	Covered	17	1	4	0	Covered by 1 topic (17 questions, 1 materials, 4 cards, 0 videos).
5. Knows ways to support reading fluency through instructional strategies (e.g., read aloud, choral reading, dialogic reading) and through strategic selection of reading material for text complexity and other text features.	ELA.Teaching - Reading Fluency V2	Covered	85	1	12	0	Covered by 1 topic (85 questions, 1 materials, 12 cards, 0 videos).
6. Knows the different formats and genres of children’s literature, including narrative and informational texts and picture books.	ELA.Teaching - Literary Genres	Covered	6	1	17	0	Covered by 1 topic (6 questions, 1 materials, 17 cards, 0 videos).
7. Knows how to use texts with different structures and features, including visual representations, in ways that fit with children’s developmental, cultural, and linguistic needs and interests (e.g., key ideas, supporting details, character, plot, setting).	ELA.Matching Readers to Text	Covered	8	1	7	0	Covered by 1 topic (8 questions, 1 materials, 7 cards, 0 videos).
8. Knows strategies to support children in the development of writing, including prewriting and handwriting skills.	ELA.Teaching - Fine Motor Skills for Writing; ELA.Teaching - Writing Skills (Elementary)	Covered	27	2	2	0	Covered by 2 topics (27 questions, 2 materials, 2 cards, 0 videos).
9. Knows strategies to develop children’s ability to make oral presentations (e.g., through modeling, retelling) and to participate in collaborative conversations, including strategies for promoting active listening and for organizing and facilitating discussion, such as through questions to promote children’s critical thinking.	ELA.Teaching - Oral Language V2	Covered	18	1	8	0	Covered by 1 topic (18 questions, 1 materials, 8 cards, 0 videos).

SMR V.B · Mathematics133 questions · 11 materials · 24 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Notes
1. Understands mathematics is learned through active exploration, direct instruction, integration of mathematical concepts across content areas	M.Manipulatives for PK-3; M.Early Learning Progressions in Math (Birth-3rd)	Covered	29	2	5	Covered by 2 topics (29 questions, 2 materials, 5 cards, 0 videos).
2. Knows how to use strategies for engaging children in mathematical thinking through manipulation of appropriate instructional materials (manufactured and natural, physical, and virtual) and the use of mathematical language in conversations about real-life problems	M.Manipulatives for PK-3; M.Real-World Applications - Early Elementary	Covered	20	2	3	Covered by 2 topics (20 questions, 2 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).
3. Knows how to support the development of foundational mathematical skills (e.g., counting, cardinality, number recognition, one-to-one correspondences, shapes, sorting objects, patterns, addition, subtraction, measurement)	M.Number Sense for Young Children	Covered	23	1	8	Covered by 1 topic (23 questions, 1 materials, 8 cards, 0 videos).
4. Understands the processes and properties of the four basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) as applied to whole numbers and how to use a variety of mathematical methods to support children's knowledge and application of arithmetic operations (e.g., standard algorithms, number sense, counting, subtracting, mental math, multiplication, division, money)	M.Mental Math and Estimation; M.United States Money; M.Strategies for Operations - Early Elementary	Covered	39	3	7	Covered by 3 topics (39 questions, 3 materials, 7 cards, 0 videos).
5. Understands how to assist children in developing the skills and concepts involving measurement and estimation using standard and nonstandard units of measure	M.Teaching Measurement	Covered	10	1	0	Covered by 1 topic (10 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos).
6. Knows how to guide children in understanding multiple visual representations of fractions, e.g., area model, discrete model, part-whole, ratio)	M.Representations of Fractions	Covered	8	1	3	Covered by 1 topic (8 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).
7. Knows foundational geometric concepts (e.g., lines and space, shapes, and their attributes) and how to guide the reasoning and learning of children in this area	M.Teaching Geometry (Birth - 3rd)	Covered	8	1	0	Covered by 1 topic (8 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos).
8. Understands the processes, skills, and concepts for representing and interpreting data and how to assist children in developing tools for mathematical inquiry (e.g., documentation through drawing graphic representation)	M.Teaching Data Interpretation (Birth - 3rd)	Covered	8	1	0	Covered by 1 topic (8 questions, 1 materials, 0 cards, 0 videos).

SMR V.C · Other Academic Disciplines30 questions · 2 materials · 5 cards · 0 videosCovered

Official competency	Matching 240 topics	Alignment	Qs	Mats	Cards	Vids	Notes
1. Knows how to identify content knowledge, concepts, methods, and the resources needed for teaching the various content subjects (social studies, science, physical education, art) in an early childhood curriculum	P.Promoting Learning (EC)	Covered	17	1	3	0	Covered by 1 topic (17 questions, 1 materials, 3 cards, 0 videos).
2. Understands the impact that integration and inquiry across multiple content areas can have on children's learning, and knows how to modify lessons through curricular resources and pedagogical strategies to benefit children's understanding of the content	P.Interdisciplinary Connections (EC); P.Promoting Learning (EC)	Covered	30	2	5	0	Covered by 2 topics (30 questions, 2 materials, 5 cards, 0 videos).

How 240 Creates The Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content (5534) Study Guide

Every 240 study guide starts with the official exam framework. From there, we organize lessons, practice, and study tools around the categories the exam uses to measure candidate knowledge.

Review the official exam framework

We begin with the standards, domains, competencies, objectives, or content categories published by the testing authority.

Map the tested categories

We map every major area the exam is designed to cover so the guide reflects the real structure of the test.

Build lessons around tested content

We create study materials to support the official blueprint, not broad filler content.

Cross-check practice against exam expectations

We review practice content against the framework and real exam patterns so preparation stays targeted.

Review and update as standards change

When official frameworks change, we review guides and update alignment as needed.

Reviewed by subject-matter experts and maintained to reflect current standards.

Why 240 Is Better Than Other Generic Study Guides

Not all study guides are built the same way. Here is what separates a test-aligned guide from a generic one — and why it matters when you are preparing for the Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content.

Generic prep

Covers broad subject areas without structure
No clear connection to the official exam framework
Practice questions may not reflect the real test format
May not update when official standards change

Can be helpful for quick, broad review

240 test-aligned Praxis 5534 prep

Every lesson maps to an official domain or competency
Built directly from the official exam framework
Practice questions aligned to what the exam actually measures
A clear study path by tested category
Study smarter and enter test day more prepared

FAQs About the Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content Study Guide

The questions teacher candidates ask us most often about the Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content study guide.

Is 240 a good study guide for Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content?

240 is a strong option because the guide is built around the official exam framework and shows detailed alignment by SMR and competency.

How closely does 240 align to the Praxis 5534 exam?

This guide is 99% aligned based on a competency-by-competency review of the official framework and the study resources included in the guide.

Does 240 cover every competency?

This page shows coverage transparently across covered, partially covered, and identified gaps so candidates can see exactly how the guide maps to the exam.

What does “partially covered” mean?

Partially covered means the guide addresses the core parts of a competency, but some depth or subtopics may still be limited.

240's Praxis Early Childhood Education: Foundational Knowledge and Content Study Guide Is 99% Test-Aligned

Praxis 5534

Coverage by content domain

Honest about depth

Reviewed as exams change